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The first step of the pharmaceutical discovery and development process is called preclinical research. This type of research is the foundation of all drug development and testing. Preclinical pharmacology studies help qualified scientists establish what effects a drug has on biological systems such as cells, tissues, and organs. Labs use these studies to develop more effective drugs for diseases such as cancer, Alzheimer's disease, diabetes, or Parkinson's disease. Another important step of the process is toxicology testing: this ensures that a drug is not harmful to humans and even treats certain problems if needed (e.g., narcotic painkillers). This step is essential for drugs that may also be prescribed to humans. Finally, the last step of the process is clinical pharmacology studies: it involves studying how a drug works on biological systems such as cells, tissues, and organs. These studies target problems such as cardiovascular problems, cerebrovascular accidents (strokes), inflammation, and substance abuse disorders. A new drug may pass all stages of preclinical and clinical testing with positive results based on these outcomes. However, if based on toxicology testing and preclinical pharmacology research, a drug may prove to be harmful to humans and even cause more harm than benefit. Pharmaceuticals are often developed by scientists at pharmaceutical companies with the goal of making a profit. Every day, more than one hundred new drugs are being developed by these companies. Pharmaceutical research is done in cooperation with clinical pharmacology specialists who study human physiology and the effects of drugs on humans. Coordination between academic researchers and pharmaceutical companies is an important aspect of clinical pharmacology research within academic laboratories. Academic scientists receive support for their experiments from industry-sponsored grants which are awarded for specific research projects. The scientists work in close collaboration with company staff to develop experimental methods, monitor progress, and review early findings that could be relevant to the project. Some companies like GlaxoSmithKline, AstraZeneca and Merck & Co. provide funding directly to academic researchers. This funding is often on a competitive basis and independent investigators can apply to receive funds on a case-by-case basis. These competitive grants typically allow for larger, more elaborate projects and sometimes require the investigator to submit deliverables such as publications on their work or peer-reviewed manuscripts. Clinical pharmacologists may work in academia, industry, or government labs. A report by Thomson Reuters Foundation found that more than 18,000 of this scientist were employed in universities and 2,700 were employed by governments around the world. The United States was the only country where clinical pharmacologists were found to work in industry. In the pharmaceutical industry, clinical pharmacologists may have a wide variety of responsibilities. At a large corporation, a clinical pharmacologist might be responsible for analyzing drug data, conducting webinars and research seminars, and consulting with pharmaceutical researchers. Clinical pharmacologists at this level are often called "clinical pharmacists". The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has strict guidelines as to what kind of studies can be used as part of preclinical tests to ensure that new drugs are safe before their release for use as medications. cfa1e77820